As an example, the transistor-transistor logic (TTL) 7408 chip contains four, two-input AND gates in one integrated circuit (IC) package. These gates and other types on separate ICs can be wired ...

Unfortunately, these drawings frustrate many people in the field. However, if you understand a few fundamentals, then ladder drawings make sense and become easy to use. Four fundamentals include: It's ...

For example, if a load is not energized when it should, a technician should be able to easily identify which switch or switches control that load and then start to troubleshoot the cause. Ladder ...