In this circuit, a PNP transistor sources current. The base voltage is about 0.7 V less than the emitter voltage. So with 10.3 V on the base, the emitter has about 11 V and R1 sees about 1 V ...

The two circuits above are the standard circuits – in this case from TI’s ‘Low-side current sense circuit integration‘ app note. The one on the left ends up referenced to the top of the sense resistor ...

Three-phase VCOs (voltage-controlled oscillators) see service in many applications, including power inverters and in electronic-music synthesis as control and modulation sources. A previous Design ...

The effect of connecting R f + to other than ground is to elevate the output voltage by the same amount.. For the third variation of v R, we take a deep breath and set v R = v O.Then for the required ...

In addition, the current source's value will differ between applications, and its connection may be ground referenced, power supply referenced or floating in a signal line path. ( Fig. 3 ) ...

An additional conductor. Now let’s consider the subject circuit: a 120V/240V multi-wire branch protected by a 2-pole (L1/L2/N) GFCI/GFPE breaker (Fig. 2).A second ungrounded conductor (red in Fig. 2) ...